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Bronze
Hollow-cast by the lost wax
method in five parts [1] joined to each other
by fusion-welding, extensively cold-worked: patched, chased, burnished
and polished. The eyes silver, the inlaid irises missing. Lips, nipples
and button on pommel of sword inlaid in copper.
Condition: patina light olive
green to blackish green, copper-coloured metal showing through in places,
specks of light green cuprous chloride here and there, the odd spot of
cuprite, traces of light-coloured earth incrustation; the surface, originally
very smooth, in places scraped with superficial spots of pitting, a few
pin-points - casting faults at join of arms and upper left thigh to body.
Missing the sword blade,
the scabbard, the base on which he would have been seated, and at the join
with the head a rectangular patch on the upper left side of his neck and
a small one on the nape, at the hairline.
Ajax at daybreak comes to
his senses. The instant when dawns upon him the terrible realization that
only death can cleanse his honour. This is the Sophoclean version of Ajax
[2].
Meditating his suicide, brooding
and despondent, he would have been seated on a rock [3]
probably cast at one with a small section of landscape figuring slain cattle
and sheep. In his upraised right hand he held the unsheathed sword - maybe
Hector's which he exchanged for his belt - of which the blade might have
been of copper or silver, and in his left the scabbard.
Until recently [4],
this was the only known representation of him in the round. The best previous
comparison for the subject was a bronze patera in Lyon [5]
with, on its omphalos in low relief, the same representation at this very
pathetic moment of the drama. His right hand also in the same position
holds the sword and he is seated on a draped rock with dead cattle at his
feet; across his upper left thigh rests a scabbard and over his left forearm
is the strap that would have held it. The latter an added indication, if
one be needed, that the representation is Ajax, son of Telamon, King of
Salamis; for Telamon means baldric in Greek. The Lyon patera has been dated
by its handle and decorative elements to the 1st century A.D. Another revealing
comparison is a terracotta lamp [6] reputedly
from Naples in Vienna. The scene is almost identical but in addition there
is a tree in the background. There are numerous gems illustrating the scene,
among which one in Munich [7] shows a very similar
representation.
In archaic times Ajax would
have been shown in action, or dead. Only the great Black-Figure artist
Exekias shows him contemplating suicide, and here, as with all the comparisons
mentioned, we have a psychological study where the moment represented is
before the action. Why a representation of Ajax at this time? B. Shefton
[8] says: "It is very well possible that a Classical
prototype, perhaps under the influence of Sophocles' play is indeed behind
this particular iconography. It is then, however, puzzling that all its
surviving precipitation should come at the end of the Republic and the
beginning of the Empire". At first the author in his talk at Stara Zagora
thought that this work harked back to a Classical original of the late
4th century, maybe a work by Lysippos, or in his tradition, though at his
Getty conference he rhetorically asked "What is the date and what is the
purpose or function of this admirable statuette? On account of its close
parallel to the Belvedere Torso, its best comparison, its classical spirit
and yet its Roman characteristics (such as the treatment of certain details,
the left thigh, the shoulder-blades, the head and hair very well modelled
and chiselled, the furrowed brow, also the stressed musculature, almost
exaggerated, and the spinal groove, his beard and hair somewhat similar
to the Boxer), we perceive between its classical inspiration and its execution
reminiscences of baroque Pergamene art with eastern influences expressed
in the muscles and thorax. I feel that we should place him in the second
half of the 1st century B.C. and probably in the early reign of Augustus."
The 1st century B.C. is a very eclectic period, but in spirit it is classicizing:
Greek artists worked for Augustus. Ajax' expression bears strong resemblance
with cameos of his time. J. Marszal, on a visit, pointed out that a detail
such as his very severe eyebrows are characteristic of the Augustan Age.
The subject of Ajax in a similar position was represented on a painting
by Timomachos, one of the two paintings [9] which
Julius Caesar brought back to Rome from Kyzikos for the temple of Venus
Victrix. Whatever the date of the painting, whether 3rd or 1st century
B.C., it reveals, with other examples such as the scene representing Ajax
on the Tabula Iliaca Capitolina of the last quarter of the 1st century
B.C., that Romans of the period were keenly aware of the subject.
The Torso Belvedere, contemporary
in date, third quarter of the 1st century B.C., is the closest parallel
and is also primarily to be seen from one viewpoint: "einansichtig".
Historically, psychologically
and philosophically such a representation of Ajax is most appropriate for
the period.
The last century B.C. was
a terribly difficult time. There is civil war when Octavian becomes Augustus,
with an atmosphere of perpetual uncertainty and insecurity. A representation
of Ajax would have served a political purpose, have been a warning against
dissension and disorder, and by inference would have been meant to be dissuasive.
Suetonius (Frgs. on the
works of Augustus, 85,2) tells that Augustus was very interested in
the psychology of Ajax and wrote a tragedy on the subject which he later
destroyed. When his friends asked him what was becoming of his "Ajax",
he answered "that he had thrown himself on a sponge". Augustus is here
making a pun on the title of his tragedy, for Ajax threw himself on his
sword, while Augustus has thrown himself on a sponge to erase any traces
of his verses.
Historically both suicide
and Ajax were in fashion just before and during the time of Augustus. Ajax
was a very popular subject, for in a certain manner he incarnated the tragic
condition of man, victim of the injustice of his peers. In philosophy the
renewal of Stoicism honours the hero for his moral strength and will-power,
thus serving as an example for all humans. As with Ajax who, shown in a
moment of disarray and despair, feeling dishonoured, commits suicide; an
act which the Stoics admitted, even approved of, if well planned. Suicide
was an acceptable form of escape and served also as a mark of opposition
to a bad prince
Romans in official speeches,
wishing to extol the virtues of an emperor, always referred to Ajax, Achilles
or Hector.
In conclusion, it is probable
that this work was made in the metropolis after an original of the 2nd
century B.C. by a Greek artist, just as was his closest comparison, the
Belvedere Torso, whose identity the author had suggested the Ajax might
reveal. It is however R. Wünsche who appropriated the idea, developed
and published it. It is, nevertheless, also possible that our Ajax was
made in one of the great workshops of the Eastern Roman Empire for a Roman
general or a philhellene prince or ruler.
Back
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On view: Antikenmuseum, Basel:
1988-1992
Mentioned: Wünsche,
R.: Deutung und Wirkung des Torso vom Belvedere, Nürnberger Blätter
zur Archäologie 8, 1991-92, pp. 61-69 ill. 57. - id.: Der Torso
vom Belvedere. Denkmal des sinnenden Aias, MüJb 3. Folge, XLIV,
1993, pp. 7-46.
The
author gave a twenty-minute exposé on this statuette of Ajax on
30 May at the VIIIth International Colloquium on Ancient Bronzes which
took place at Stara Zagora on 28 May to 1 June 1984, and a one-hour talk
at The J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, entitled "Ajax contemplating suicide"
on 25 April 1985. On these occasions he discussed different aspects and
at the Malibu talk developed the historical context of the statuette covering
the last two centuries that led up to it. But in both he drew attention
to its closest parallel and comparison, the Belvedere Torso of which he
showed several slides, matching views with the Ajax and said "en passant"
that the present statuette could furnish the indication for the identification
of the torso.
Subsequent
to the author's 1985 talk and a visit to his collection by R. Wünsche
when the author suggested the identification for the Belvedere Torso, Wünsche
obtained photographs for study purposes only; but later he published a
photograph and the identification in an article in 1991-92, neither acknowledging
the paternity of the idea nor informing the author. This accomplished,
a more thorough publication appeared in 1993, of which the author, once
again, was not informed; but since he had written a letter of protest to
Wünsche after the first publication, this time minimal acknowledgment
was given.
At the closing
of the George Ortiz Collection in the Hermitage, in a small symposium,
George Ortiz spoke of Ajax, cat. no. 220, in detail, showing its closest
comparison to be the Belvedere Torso and suggesting once again that the
bronze could be the explanation for the latter's identification.
1
These are: the body with the right leg, the head (the join
Below the
buttocks traces of the soldering (probably soft solder - roughly 50% Pb
& 50% Sn) that served to hold the figure on its base; a long oval opening
below the right foot surely for the same purpose; the iron rod running
down through the core of the right leg probably once extended into the
base through the opening in the foot, though it may have been only to hold
the core in place.
2
The tragedy (446-420 B.C.) of which a résumé of the argument
is given us in F. Storr, Sophocles, Vol. II Loeb Classical Library
(London/New York, 1919) as follows: "The arms of Achilles, claimed by Ajax
as the bravest warrior in the host", bulwark of the Achaeans, erchos
Achaion (Homer, Iliad III 229), the greatest hero after Achilles,
whose body he recovered at great risk from under the walls of Troy that
he might receive appropriate burial among his own "were through intrigue
given to Odysseus, and Ajax vows vengeance both on the winner and on the
awarders of the prize. But Athena, his patron goddess, whom his arrogance
has estranged," for he committed the sin of hubris - he told her
when she came to help him 'Go and look after other Achaeans, the line will
never break where I stand' and to his father Telamon, King of Salamis,
who asked him if he had sacrificed to the gods, that he could win glory
without their help. He is punished for his arrogance and through intrigue
the Achaean chieftains vote with a bare majority that the arms go to Odysseus,
Athena's new protégé - "sends him a delusion so that he mistakes
for his foes the sheep and cattle of the Greeks. Athena, when the play
opens, is discovered conversing with Odysseus outside the tent of Ajax;
she will show him his mad foe mauling the beasts within. The mad fit passes
and Ajax bewails his insensate folly and declares that death alone can
wipe out the shame. His wife Tecmessa and the Chorus try to dissuade him,
but he will not be comforted and calls for his son Eurysaces. The child
is brought, and after leaving his last injunctions for his brother Teucer,
Ajax takes a tender farewell. He then fetches his sword from the tent and
goes forth declaring that he will purge himself of his stains and bury
his sword. Presently a Messenger from the camp announces that Teucer has
returned from his foray and has learnt from Calchas, the seer, that if
only Ajax can be kept within the camp for that day all may yet be well.
The Chorus and Tecmessa set forth in quest of Ajax, and Tecmessa discovers
him lying transfixed by his sword. Teucer finds the mourners gathered round
the corpse and is preparing to bury him, when Menelaus hurries up to forbid
the burial. After an angry wrangle with Teucer, Menelaus departs, but is
succeeded by Agamemnon, who enforces his brother's veto and is hardly persuaded
by Odysseus to relent." Odysseus says (Ajax 1357): "with me his
worth outweighs his enmity.""Ajax is carried by his Salaminians to his
grave, a grave (so they prophesy) that shall be famous for
3
As suggested by the comparisons and indicated by the uneven surface under
his buttocks and the traces of soldering. The position also bears comparison
with that of the Herakles in Tarentum, as described by Strabo (64 B.C.-A.D.
21).
4
The author was lucky enough to be offered from New York a small bronze
statuette of Ajax (H: 6.75 cm), allegedly also from Asia Minor, seated
on a draped rock, cast in one on a piece of landscape, its base, on which
lie three dead animals, an ox, a ram and what appears to be a doe. His
right hand in a similar position to that of the present statuette also
holds the pommel of a sword, the blade missing, and in his left resting
on the forearm is the scabbard, whereas on the present statuette it would
have been held inside his arm.
5
Musée de la Civilisation Gallo-Romaine à Lyon Br. 144: Armand-Caillat,
L.: Patères en bronze trouvées près de Lyon à
l'Ile-Barbe, RA, 1959, p. 65 ff. - Boucher, S., Tassinari, S.: Musée
de la Civilisation Gallo-Romaine à Lyon. Bronzes Antiques I (Paris,
1976), no. 138, pp. 122-123.
6
Kunsthistorisches Museum V 3601: Armand-Caillat, L.: op. cit., fig. 4.
- LIMC I,1, no. 101, p. 328 ill. I,2, p. 245 (O. Touchefeu).
7
Staatliche Antikensammlung und Glyptothek A 458: LIMC I,1, no. 99,
p. 328 ill. I,2, p. 245 (O. Touchefeu).
8Agamemnon
or Ajax? RA, 1973, pp. 217-218.
9
The other was of Medea reflecting on the assassination of
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